General Motors

General Motors (GM) are using a sonochemical route that is claimed to have significantly fewer processing steps than the Armstrong process (Halalay and Balough, 2008a).

From: Sintering of Advanced Materials , 2010

History of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

Noriko Hikosaka Behling , in Fuel Cells, 2013

7.5.1.1.1.2 GM

GM has been more committed to FCVs than any other US manufacturer and remains the only US automaker pursuing the near-term commercialization of fuel cell cars. Ford likely is no longer committed to investing in FCV development, 369 and Chrysler, with its new parent company Fiat, likely views FCV as a technology for the distant future.

GM, with the development of the HydroGen3 in 2001, undoubtedly felt confident in the commercial viability of FCVs and it announced plans to begin commercialization by 2005. GM unveiled two futuristic-looking concept cars— the GM AUTOnomy and the HyWire —in 2002. The AUTOnomy was a sleek, spacious drive-by-wire 2-seater vehicle with a fuel cell propulsion system and three hydrogen fuel tanks that were packaged in a 6-inch thick skateboard platform. 370 The HyWire was a drivable proof-of-concept vehicle derived from theAUTOnomy model using HydroGen3 technology. The skateboard grew in thickness to 11 inches, but the vehicle still was controlled by wire. 82 It had a top speed of 100 mph. 371 The fuel cell system was capable of providing 100 kW of continuous power. Using 2 kg of hydrogen stored in tanks at 5000 psi, it had a driving range of 100 miles. 371

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But plans for commercialization of the HyWire in 2005 did not materialize.

Still, in 2005, GM unveiled the Chevrolet Sequel at the Detroit auto show 372 and in September 2006, GM unveiled two Chevrolet Sequels that were as drivable as regular cars. The vehicles were controlled by wire, giving the driver simulated driving feedback 370 and used HydroGen3 technology 372 along with a 65 kW lithium-ion battery pack. 370 Three high-pressure storage tanks contained 8 kg at 10,000 psi, giving the Sequel a 300 mile driving range. The lithium-ion battery served to capture energy from regenerative braking in the same manner as a hybrid vehicle. It accelerated from 0 to 60 mph in 10 s and had a top speed of 90 mph.

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In February 2007, it was reported that GM was planning to begin production of the fuel cell Chevrolet Sequel by 2010. 373

In September 2006, GM introduced the GM Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell Vehicle as part of a major field research project, called Project Driveway, which would place more than 100 Equinox vehicles with customers across the United States, China, Japan, and South Korea. 374 The FCV was powered by GM's fourth-generation fuel cell propulsion system and was able to start and operate in sub-freezing temperatures. The FCV had a driving range of about 200 miles and a top speed of 99 mph, and accelerated from 0 to 62 mph in 12 s. 375 In September 2007, GM introduced the GM HydroGen4 in Germany, 376 which was the European version of the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell. 377 From mid-2008, a total of 10 HydroGen4 vehicles took part in day-to-day testing in the CEP in Berlin. 376

In April 2007, GM unveiled the Chevrolet Volt FC Hybrid at the Shanghai Motor Show, which was a fuel cell variant of the Chevrolet Volt under the E-Flex electric drive family. 378 The Chevrolet Volt Fuel Cell Hybrid was powered by a new 80 kW fifth-generation GM fuel cell stack with an 8 kWh (50 kW peak power) lithium-ion battery to provide up to 300 miles of electric driving. The Volt fuel cell variant was plug-in capable, adding up to 20 additional miles (34 km) of range each time it was charged.

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In November 2007, GM indicated that it hoped to deliver production fuel cell cars as early as 2011, most likely in the form of the fuel cell Chevy Volt. 379

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Also that month, a GM vice president indicated that the company aimed to be the first automaker to produce one million FCVs. 380

In January 2008, GM unveiled the Cadillac Provoq at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada. 381 GM's E-Flex propulsion system initially was designed for the Chevrolet Volt, but was also incorporated in the Cadillac Provoq. The vehicle achieved a 300 mile range by packing two high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks beneath its rear cargo floor. It combined an 88 kW fuel cell with a 60 kW lithium-ion battery pack that could store up to 9 kWh of electrical energy. It featured a 70 kW coaxial motor drive system for the front wheels and a 40 kW motor in each of the rear wheel hubs, accelerating the vehicle to 60 mph in about 8.5 s. The vehicle had a top speed of 100 mph.

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However, GM's plans for near-term fuel cell commercialization were wavering. In March 2008, GM's vice chairman at the Geneva Motor Show suggested that GM's fuel cell priorities had shifted to plug-in electric vehicles. 382

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As of October 2009, General Motors CEO stated that GM had reduced its hydrogen program because the cost of building hydrogen cars was too high. 365 In the same month, GM's vice president for research and development, who led the company's fuel cell development for 30 years, elected to retire. 383 It seemed as if GM had abandoned its fuel cell effort after all.

But the story of GM's interest in FCVs might not yet be over. In September 2009, Chevrolet Equinox fuel cell electric vehicles passed the one million mile mark in the Project Driveway road test. 384 At the same time, Opel, a European subsidiary of GM, announced in June 2011 that its HydroGen4 fleet, the European versions of the Chevrolet Equinox, passed the two-million mile mark. 385 The HydroGen4 vehicles had been part of a test program with the partners such as ADAC, Allianz, Bild/Axel Springer AG, Coca-Cola, Enertrag, Hilton, IKEA, Linde, Pace, and Total to test different applications for FCVs. 386

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Contrary to pessimistic reports of a year or two ago, GM in March 2010 was reported to be testing a production-class hydrogen fuel cell system for a passenger vehicle that would be ready for commercial production in 2015. 387 The new fuel cell system was GM's fifth-generation fuel cell system. 388 The powertrain would be half the size, 220 pounds lighter, and use about one-third of the platinum compared to the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell electric vehicles used in Project Driveway. 387

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It was also reported that Opel revealed that the company had been looking toward launching a FCV by 2015 389 or 2016. 390

In August 2011, however, GM seemed to back away from its commercialization goals. A top GM executive was unsure if GM would be able to reduce the cost of fuel cell cars to a practical level even after 2020. 391 GM might have encountered difficulty with its fifth-generation fuel cell system. But, it is also possible that confidence might return if it achieves some success in reducing costs.

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Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles, Battery Electric Vehicles, and their Impact on Energy Storage Technologies

Ulrich Eberle , Rittmar von Helmolt , in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, 2010

7 Conclusions

GM's long-term advanced propulsion strategy consists in displacing gasoline and diesel fuel as energy sources for the automotive application. This will be achieved by a continuously increasing electrification of the powertrain. However, the energy density of current and future automotive batteries unfortunately provides limitations for the development of pure battery electrical vehicles as soon as longer vehicle ranges significantly beyond 100 miles are required. Therefore, GM and Opel pursue the E-REV and FCEV concepts for this application field. Ranges of 500   km can be achieved with hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and 700   bar CGH2 tanks; moreover, hydrogen can be produced at large scale at competitive prices. In the area of longer-range sustainable mobility, the future of automotive propulsion seems to rely mostly upon E-REV and FCEV vehicles and for some urban applications also upon small-sized BEV. During the early commercialization phases, all of these vehicles will be more expensive than comparable conventional vehicles; therefore, the support and cooperation of all involved stakeholders is indispensable during this initial phase. The most important players thereby are primarily car manufacturers, energy companies, and the governments. But also the end consumer needs to accept and buy these innovative vehicles despite the remaining incremental cost compared to conventional vehicles.

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Fuel cells and the hydrogen economy

Paul Nieuwenhuis , Peter Wells , in The Automotive Industry and the Environment, 2003

7.4 AUTOnomy – reinventing the chassis to fit the cell

AUTOnomy is a concept vehicle shown by General Motors at the 2002 Detroit International Auto Show ( www.gm.com; Burns et al., 2002; Borroni-Bird, 2002). Few commentators outside GM appear to have appreciated the full significance of this concept, which goes far beyond the fuel cell powertrain itself. However, the GM people responsible know very well what they are trying to achieve. They claim that 'A confluence of factors makes the big change seem increasingly likely. For one, the petroleum-fuelled internal combustion engine … is finally reaching its limits' (Burns et al., 2002: 42).

General Motors regard the fuel cell as a suitable alternative technology, but move beyond this with their concept car:

A concept such as that of AUTOnomy … could significantly change the current business model. It could conceivably lower vehicle development costs because, with modules able to be produced independently, design changes to the body and chassis modules could be made more easily and cheaply. As with today's truck platform derivatives, it will be possible to design the chassis only once to accommodate various body styles. These derivatives could easily have different front ends, interior layouts and chassis tuning. With perhaps only three chassis needed – compact, midsize and large - production volumes could be much larger than those now, bringing greater economies of scale. (Burns et al., 2002: 45)

Essentially, this vehicle consists of a flat base unit, about 15   cm thick, which contains the entire fuel cell powertrain and holds the wheels, suspension and other key items. It is itself an autonomous mobile structure, which the GM engineers in charge call the 'skateboard'. Fuel cell technology and its electric powertrain allow very flexible packaging in a way not possible with conventional internal combustion systems. It is also not made according to Buddist principles, as it uses various lightweight alternative materials in its body and its chassis.

The 'skateboard' has four body attachment points and one central 'docking point' by means of which a separate body structure can be attached to it. This point allows the necessary communications interface between the body and the powertrain module (Robertson, 2002). AUTOnomy is a modular approach to car making, far removed from the monocoque. In a sense, it reintroduces the separate chassis and body structures, as used by Henry Ford on the Model T and, as Burns et al. point out, as used on modern US trucks. However, it goes even further. Provided the docking points can be standardised, it should be possible to make a wide range of bodies to interface with a standardised 'skateboard' powertrain unit. The concept car, masterminded by GM's Chris Borroni-Bird and his team, is fitted with a two-seater sports car body. One could envisage saloon, estate, MPV, coupé, roadster and more radical body styles being made by independent small specialists for use with standardised mass produced 'skateboards'. Alternatively, mainstream manufacturers could supply a range of body styles themselves. In fact, GM itself took the next step by presenting a one-box saloon concept on the skateboard platform, called Hy-Wire at the 2002 Paris Motor Show.

On the one hand this spells a potential return to the luxury cars of the past, which were supplied as chassis only to be bodied by the coachbuilder of choice. On the other hand, within the modern idiom it can be compared with exchangeable covers for mobile phones. Space would probably prevent most customers from owning large numbers of bodies, however many people might consider owning one or two spare bodies in addition to their everyday car. For daily commuting – if that still exists when such vehicles become mainstream – a sports car body could be used as in the original AUTOnomy. At the weekend an MPV or estate option could be fitted. Alternatively, dealers or independent body rental firms could provide this service, creating a new subsector. Bodies and 'skateboards' could be updated independently from each other as technology requirements, fashions and offerings change. More efficient powertrain items could be fitted to the skateboard without affecting the bodies, provided the interface could accommodate such an upgrade. Much of this upgrading – as well as tuning to the needs of individual customers – could be done by means of software reconfiguration.

GM's AUTOnomy is the first purpose-designed fuel cell vehicle. It also introduces drive by wire, as all controls actuated by the driver in the body module are communicated to the power module via the electric/electronic docking point from a driver control unit working through a new generation 42   V electrical system. The drive by wire technology is supplied by Swedish firm SKF and it means that conventional pedals and steering wheel or steering column are no longer needed; all mechanical linkages between driver and car are replaced with electronics. More contentiously, perhaps, GM also argues that it could help bring automobility to developing countries in view of low tooling costs and the flexibility of providing dedicated body types for different markets. It claims this could help extend automobility to the 88   % of the world's population who currently do not enjoy its benefits.

AUTOnomy is an attempt to start from first principles. General Motors' CEO Rick Wagoner claims GM started by asking the question 'What if we were inventing the automobile today rather than a century ago? What might we do differently?' (www.gm.com). He was indeed correct when he went on to say that 'AUTOnomy is more than just a new concept car; it's potentially the start of a revolution in how automobiles are designed, built and used'.

All fixed points in the design are within the skateboard. The body can be configured in any way, as long as the connections to the chassis are there. The traditional limitations of engine bay, bulkhead, steering column, pedals are no longer there, allowing the body designer almost total freedom. This will allow a return to true automotive design, centred around people and their needs, rather than the needs of the production system that makes the car, as is the case under the existing Buddist–Fordist system. GM also state that the basic skateboard structure would last for years,'… much longer than a conventional vehicle', thereby linking in to that most fundamental of environmental issues: product durability.

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Repurposing of batteries from electric vehicles

V.V. Viswanathan , M.C. Kintner-Meyer , in Advances in Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles, 2015

15.4.5 Automobile manufacturers and collaborators

GM and ABB have tested five used battery packs from Chevy Volts with air cooling for community energy storage after demonstrating viability in the laboratory (Garthwaite, 2012; Hampton, 2013). The batteries were artificially degraded to 85–90% of their original energy capacity for this demonstration.

Based on the test results, GM signed a memorandum of understanding with ABB to scale up to power 50 homes, using the five-battery module as a repeating unit. Duke Energy plans to use this battery to smooth and firm wind, along with other value streams. An additional option being investigated is using these batteries for community energy storage. These second-use batteries can be charged at low peak times and then be used to charge electric vehicles, thereby reducing the need for expensive T&D equipment upgrade. GM is also considering using these batteries as a fast charging source in urban areas.

In January 2012, Nissan North America, ABB, 4R Energy, and Sumitomo Corporation announced their plans to build a grid-scale storage system prototype using Nissan Leaf batteries. Plans are to build a 50-kWh prototype to power 15 homes. Indy Power Systems used various lead–acid battery types to build a 50   kW, 15   kWh storage system for peak shaving for Melink Corporation, a HVAC equipment vendor (Hampton, 2013).

A collaboration, led by Electricore, with San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E), CSE, BMW, and Ricardo, is underway to standardize EV battery packs, which will greatly simplify their redeployment for stationary storage at the end of EV life (CSE, 2014).

Hart et al. (2014) modeled the use of the second-life batteries in a conventional and hybrid CERTS microgrid. It was found that the increase in impedance due to aging did not impact the performance of parallel connected batteries both in islanded and gird-connected mode.

Heymans et al. (2014) identified a significant opportunity for smaller storage systems for residential use for peak shaving. Decentralization using storage also serves to increase grid flexibility. It was determined that government incentives are needed for residential customers to take on installation and procurement costs.

Lih et al. (2012) used a simple approach to estimate the residual value at the end of the first-use life in the vehicle. The product of residual capacity and calendar life fractions was multiplied with a parameter that was set to 0.9 in the study. The cost to upgrade the battery was described by another equation, which includes an assumed improvement in performance for the upgraded battery and an upgrading cost, which was set at 20% of the residual value. It was not clear how the performance of the battery could be improved by upgrading, as the chemistry cannot be altered. To estimate the profit, the lease income in each stage was calculated. For the first stage, the difference between the new product price and the residual value was added to 15% of the residual value. For the second stage, the lease income was set to be the difference between the upgraded value and the scrap value. The total initial cost of the battery was subtracted from the total lease income to determine the profit over the life of the battery pack. For this case, the battery was in the vehicle for 3 years, followed by 12 years' use in stationary application. A profit of 34% was obtained over the 15-year life of the battery. It is not clear why the cost for upgrading the battery pack was not considered in the total cost.

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Hybrid Electric Vehicles

John M. German , in Encyclopedia of Energy, 2004

4.5 Hybrids as Electric Generators

Both General Motors and DaimlerChrysler plan to offer similar 42-V hybrid systems on full-size pickup trucks in 2004. An AC induction motor/generator is integrated into the drivetrain and is used for idle-stop and limited acceleration assist. Both use 42-V lead-acid batteries, which are recharged with regenerative braking. The fuel economy improvement is relatively modest, about 10–15%, because the engines are not downsized, in order to preserve cargo-hauling and trailer-towing abilities. However, the fuel economy improvement is secondary to the on-board electrical-generating capability provided from the on-board engine and generator on these vehicles. The GM pickups provide continuous 20-amp power through each of two 110-V outlets. The Dodge Ram can provide up to 20  kW of either 110- or 220-V power. These systems are primarily targeted at construction site work, but they may also appeal to campers and outdoor enthusiasts and to farmers and homeowners for backup power in case of a power failure.

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Hydrogen as a fuel in transportation

J.R. Anstrom , in Advances in Hydrogen Production, Storage and Distribution, 2014

17.4.5 Hydrogen fuel-cell automotive demonstration and deployment

Automakers, General Motors Company (GM), Honda, Hyundai, Mercedes Benz, Nissan, and Toyota are developing and deploying field trial FCV fleets ranging from dozens to hundreds of fuel-cell passenger vehicles with the stated goal of making very small numbers of production FCVs available for lease sometime in the 2015–2018 timeframe. Deployment of FCVs may follow the pattern of electric vehicle introduction, where a fixed number of vehicles were leased to gain further market experience while limiting the warranty and support exposure to a manageable size. GM touts its Project Driveway field trial of over 100 fuel-cell SUVs as the largest in the world. In its 2011 annual report GM states 'Our Chevrolet Equinox fuel cell electric vehicle demonstration programs, such as Project Driveway, are the largest in the world and have accumulated more than 2 300 000   miles (3 700 000   km) of real-world driving by consumers, celebrities, business partners and government agencies' (GM, 2011). Hyundai also completed a field test of 50 Tucson ix FCEVs in Korea during 2012.

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Future Prospects for Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites

Michel Biron , in Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites (Third Edition), 2018

Use of Structural Plastics: LFRT, GMT, etc

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General Motors Co. won an award in the aftermarket category, for the carbon fiber composite spoiler developed for the 2016 Chevrolet Corvette sports car, with a mass reduction of 40%. The part is supplied by deBotech Inc. using Solvay materials.

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General Motors Co. won award in the chassis/hardware category, for the glass-reinforced nylon strut mount on the 2016 Cadillac CT6 luxury sedan. The parts reduce mass 30% versus typical steel and aluminum parts, while also reducing noise transmission through the suspension system. The supplier was ContiTech North America Inc., and BASF Corp. supplied the material.

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3B-the fiberglass company was presented with the JEC Innovation Award in the Construction Category. 3B's pultruded reinforced composite cladding solution provided architects scope to conceive a distinctive, contemporary design for the Sheraton Hotel at Malpensa airport, Milan, Italy.

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Strongwell won an award by the Associated General Contractors of America for renovation of a federal and heavy construction project. Resistance to corrosion, rot and low temperature of EXTREN and SAFRAIL products manufactured by Strongwell proved to be an ideal replacement for the wooden structures and walkways.

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Plastic sealed door module is injection molded from long-glass fiber PP pellets by Faurecia for the Ford Fiesta.

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The running boards (0.25 × 2   m) for the Ford pickups, Explorer, and Mountaineer SUVs are injection molded from 40% long-glass fiber PP. They weigh about 6–8   kg each. Weight saving is near 50% versus steel. The one-piece board replaces several tens of components and saves about €10 per vehicle. Long-glass fiber compounds can be pellets from StaMax or can be prepared in-line according to processes such as CPI (Composite Products Inc.) or LFT-D-ILC (Dieffenbacher).

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All-plastic integrated front-end module for BMW Mini Cooper is injection molded from StaMax, a LFRT, with no metal support.

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Door carrier panel on Lancia Y-Epsilon is made of Quadrant GMT and GMTEx 40% GMT PP. Benefits are large functional integration, weight reduction, and cost saving.

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SymaLITE lightweight-reinforced thermoplastic composites are used by BMW on the underbody shields for the new five series passenger cars.

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Tanks (by Covessa) capable of withstanding up to 100   bar made by welding three parts in glass fiber-reinforced PP (Twintex).

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Hybrid thermoplastic composite bumper beams made by Plastic Omnium are used by General Motors on the Pontiac Montana, Chevrolet Venture, and Oldsmobile Silhouette. Continuous woven fibers are overmolded with a long or short fiber-reinforced PP to save weight (6   kg), enhance impact resistance (20%–40%), and integrate numerous functions such as reinforcement ribs. The process is fully automated.

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Composite grid to replace steel reinforcement of precast concrete panels.

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Springs made of glass or carbon fiber-reinforced UD thermoplastic composite.

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Circular economy: the next economics

Woodrow W. ClarkII undefined , Danilo Bonato MBA , in Sustainable Mega City Communities, 2021

Electric cars today: then all solar-powered cars is the next economics

The car manufacturers today do not want to make the same mistakes that they made at the end of the 20th century. Hence, the ALL electric car was created with the Tesla Car becoming the leading manufacturer and distributer. Was there a "market" for the Tesla? NO. Was there even a demand for electric cars? NO. In fact, the Tesla name is from the famous scientist at the turn of the 19th century who invented wireless energy (AC) systems. Tesla was in competition with Thomas Edison at that time who wanted DC produced from energy that was produced from fossil fuels such as coal and oil and then distributed in pipes, wires, etc. (Seifer, 1996 updated 2006 and Clark, 2004 and updated 2017).

What happened was that Elon Musk (a successful entrepreneur in other businesses) saw that there was a need for the ALL electric car now and was able to raise funds to manufacture and then promote the sales of his Tesla Car.

Now, General Motors (GM) declared in early December 2018 that it was shutting down five car manufacturing plants with over 15,000 people losing their jobs. The reason was GM decided that it now wanted to manufacture and sell only electric cars, as Green Car (2018):

A new Chinese electric carmaker plans to sell electric cars in the United States via the owner of the defunct automaker Coda. A new Tesla Model S unexpectedly caught fire—twice—after getting a flat tire in California. Moreover, Volkswagen teased a video and images of its new I.D. electric hatchbacks testing in South Africa. All these and more are on Green Car Reports. Electric car fans have long wondered why automakers do not do a better job of promoting their benefits. Now that automakers are being required to sell more electric models outside of California, Nissan is ramping up those efforts for its Leaf electric car.

Mullen Motor Company, the California start-up that bills itself as "the affordable electric car company," plans to start selling an electric sports car from China alongside its small neighborhood electric vehicles and (previously) leftover Coda sedans. Moreover, Volkswagen, perhaps growing tired of listening to online skeptics who doubt the company, is serious about selling electric cars.

The Nissan Leaf with a roughly 60-kilowatt-hour battery was expected to make its public debut at the LA Auto Show earlier this month. It did not. That car is expected to appear "very soon," perhaps at the 2019 Consumer Electronics Show to be held in Las Vegas next month.

All of the news and "demand" for electric cars was never linear with supply. The lines of people who went in 2016–17 to put a down payment on Tesla cars never saw in the demand for electric cars in any data supplied about cars, especially all-electric cars. The same was for hybrid cars when they were first (Prius) released by Toyota in the late Spring of 2003. What happened was that the public demand rose and expanded after the Prius. Then later Tesla, which greatly reduced the costs for its cars, has spread its sales around the world (especially in China) where the Tesla is now being manufactured in China as well.

However, the largest renewable energy company in China (Hanergy) located in Beijing went ever further in Circular Economics as it saw the use of thin film solar manufactured for buildings is now being applied to cars. Why? As noted here and then more details so that the sun comes down on cars with thin film solar on the cars that are recharged as they are driven, parked, or even going to and from home and office events (Clark, July 2016)

Although the sun does not shine at night or even during the day due to clouds and rain, the cars get power from the sun and stored in the car. In short, a "solar car" is Circular Economics in action.

Following this, solar car from Hanergy Energy Group is a dramatic technology change for cars has started and the cars will be out soon from a company in Germany. Meanwhile, the China Daily reported at the end of 2018 about the overall car industry in China and USA:

As California-based Tesla Motors Inc. will start partial production in Shanghai in the second half of next year, and Boeing delivered first airplane from its Zhoushan facility in China earlier this month, business leaders believe that stable China–US relations will help more companies from the United States to maintain robust growth in China. China has become an integral part of the growth plans of many US businesses, not just because of its sheer size but also due to its strategic importance, according to Stephen Shafer, president of 3M China, the Minnesota-headquartered conglomerate. "China is actually becoming the leader in many markets and technologies that we are interested in," said Shafer, referring to digital platforms in China that help companies engage with customers. (Daily, 2018)

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I/O Processing

W. Bolton , in Programmable Logic Controllers (Sixth Edition), 2015

4.5.1 MAP

By 1990 General Motors in the United States had a problem automating its manufacturing activities; the company needed all its systems to be able to talk to each other. It thus developed a standard communications system for factory automation applications, called the manufacturing automation protocol (MAP). The system applied to all systems on the shop floor, such as robot systems, PLCs, and welding systems. Table 4.3 shows the MAP model and its relationship to the ISO model. In order for non-OSI equipment to operate on the MAP system, gateways may be used. These are self-contained units or interface boards that fit in the device so that messages from a non-OSI network/device may be transmitted through the MAP broadband token bus to other systems.

Table 4.3. MAP

ISO Layer MAP
7 Application ISO file transfer, MMS, FTAM, CASE
6 Presentation
5 Session ISO session kernel
4 Transport ISO transport class 4
3 Network ISO Internet
2 Data link IEEE 802.2 class 1; IEEE 802.4 token bus
1 Physical IEEE 802.4 broadband
Transmission 10   mbps coaxial cable with RF modulators

Note: MMS = manufacturing message service, FTAM = file transfer, CASE = common applications service; each of these provides a set of commands that will be understood by devices and the software used.

The Application layer supports the Manufacturing Message Service (MMS), which defines the interactions between PLCs and numerically controlled machines and robots.

For the data link, methods are needed to ensure that only the user of the network is able to transmit at any one time, and for MAP the method used is token passing. The term broadband is used for a network in which information is modulated onto a radio frequency carrier that is then transmitted through the coaxial cable.

MAP is not widely used; a more commonly used system is the Ethernet. This is a single bus system with CSMA/CD used to control access. It uses coaxial cable with a maximum length of 500   m; up to 1024 stations can be accommodated, and repeaters that restore signal amplitude, waveform, and timing can be used to extend this capability (Figure 4.30). Each station is connected to the bus via a transceiver, which clamps onto the bus cable. The term vampire tap is used for the clamp on to the cable since stations can be connected or removed without disrupting system operation.

Figure 4.30. Baseband Ethernet with repeaters.

The term baseband is used when the signal is transmitted as just a series of voltage levels directly representing the bits being transmitted.

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General Motors Models

Daiheng Ni , in Traffic Flow Theory, 2016

An anecdote has it that General Motors' CEO Charles Wilson once said "what's good for General Motors is good for America." It turned out that this statement was misquoted, and the true version dates back to 1953, when Wilson, who was appointed as the Secretary of Defense by President Eisenhower, was at his confirmation hearings before the Senate Armed Services Committee (source, Wikipedia):

During the hearings, when asked if as Secretary of Defense he could make a decision adverseto the interests of General Motors, Wilson answered affirmatively. But added that he could not conceive of such a situation "because for years I thought what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa.

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